Additionally, each field of application requires different battery properties as a priority. Different kinds of batteries must be intensely investigated due to crucial issues that arise from their main sources, including high cost, depletion, and environmental toxicity.
To overcome these challenges, efforts are being made to develop high-voltage aqueous electrolytes, appropriate electrode materials, and suitable combinations of materials and electrolytes in various fields (Fig. In particular, high-temperature operation can accelerate self-discharge, increase electrode corrosion, and reduce the battery’s overall performance and lifespan. In aqueous-based batteries, self-discharge is mainly caused by the diffusion of ions through the electrolyte and the reaction of the electrode materials with water. Self-discharge refers to the gradual loss of charge in a battery, even when it is not in use, due to internal chemical reactions. Additionally, self-discharge is a common problem in ABs. Although research on aqueous battery systems has been ongoing since the first report of a water-based battery using LiMn 2O 4 (LMO) as a cathode and VO 2(B) as an anode by the Dahn group 8, the development of aqueous batteries (ABs) is still limited by the availability of suitable electrode materials that can operate within the narrow electrochemical stability window (ESW) of aqueous electrolytes (1.23 V) without decomposing (Fig. In addition to their safety advantages, aqueous electrolytes are environmentally friendly and have high ionic conductivity (~10 −1 Ω −1 cm −1) compared to other types of electrolytes: organic electrolytes (10 −3–10 −2 Ω −1 cm −1), polymer electrolytes (10 −7–10 −3 Ω −1 cm −1) and inorganic solid electrolytes (10 −7–10 −2 Ω −1 cm −1) (Fig. This method not only mitigates the risk of thermal runaway but also reduces costs by utilizing inexpensive separators and salts suitable for aqueous electrolytes. To address these issues, research is being conducted to replace the organic electrolyte with a non-volatile aqueous electrolyte that offers high thermal resistance 6, 7. However, many serious hazards, including fire, explosion, and harmful leakage, have been reported with organic solvent electrolytes currently used in commercial electric vehicles batteries 4, 5. As a result, the demand for large-scale secondary batteries has grown, with price and safety emerging as the most important factors for the commercialization of electric vehicles. As global interest in environmental protection increases due to climate change, there is a growing need for energy storage systems that can efficiently store and supply electrical energy produced from renewable sources and electric vehicles 1, 2, 3.
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